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Gout

Background

Overview

Definition
Gout is a type of inflammatory arthritis characterized by the deposition of monosodium urate monohydrate crystals in synovial fluid and other tissues.
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Pathophysiology
Gout is due to persistently elevated blood levels of uric acid (hyperuricemia), which is often multifactorial (increased intake of purine-rich foods, defects in purine metabolism, older age, male sex, obesity, renal failure, diuretics).
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Epidemiology
In the US, the prevalence of gout is estimated at 3,900 persons per 100,000 population. The incidence of gout is estimated at 400 per 100,000 person-years in men, and 140 per 100,000 person-years in women.
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Disease course
In patients with acute gout, deposition of urate monohydrate crystals inside joint cavities initiate an inflammatory response that results in the clinical manifestations of arthritis. Chronic synovitis, bony erosions, cartilage damage, and tophi formation may occur in patients with chronic gout.
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Prognosis and risk of recurrence
The 1-year recurrence rate for acute gout attack in patients who have experienced an attack in the past year is estimated at 69%.
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Guidelines

Key sources

The following summarized guidelines for the evaluation and management of gout are prepared by our editorial team based on guidelines from the American Academy of Family Physicians (AAFP 2025), the European League Against Rheumatism (EULAR 2024,2023,2020,2017), the American College of Rheumatology (ACR 2023,2020,2012), the American College of Physicians (ACP 2017), the American College of Radiology (ACR 2017), the British Society ...
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Screening and diagnosis

Diagnosis: as per AAFP 2025 guidelines, use a validated clinical decision rule, such as the ACR and EULAR Collaborative Initiative criteria, along with clinical and imaging data to assess and diagnose gout when joint aspiration is not performed.
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Diagnostic investigations

Clinical evaluation: as per EULAR 2020 guidelines, assess for risk factors for chronic hyperuricemia in all patients with gout, specifically CKD, overweight, medications (including diuretics, low-dose aspirin, cyclosporine, tacrolimus), consumption of excess alcohol (particularly beer and spirits), non-diet sodas, meat and shellfish.
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  • Diagnostic imaging

  • Genetic testing

  • Evaluation for comorbidities

  • Screening for chronic infections

Diagnostic procedures

Synovial fluid analysis, indications: as per EULAR 2024 guidelines, do not perform synovial fluid analysis to confirm the diagnosis when characteristic features of monosodium urate crystal deposition on ultrasound (double contour sign or tophi) or dual-energy CT are identified.
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  • Synovial fluid analysis (technical considerations)

Medical management

Management of acute flares: as per ACR 2020 guidelines, initiate concomitant anti-inflammatory prophylaxis therapy (such as colchicine, NSAIDs, prednisone/prednisolone) in patients with gout. Select the specific agent of anti-inflammatory prophylaxis based on patient factors.
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  • Indications for urate-lowering therapy

  • Treatment targets

  • Allopurinol

  • Xanthine oxidase inhibitors

  • Uricosuric therapy

  • Pegloticase

  • Anti-inflammatory therapy

Nonpharmacologic interventions

Discontinuation of contributing medications: as per ACR 2012 guidelines, discontinue non-essential medications that are associated with elevation in serum urate levels (such as thiazide diuretics, loop diuretics, niacin, and calcineurin inhibitors).
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  • Rest and ice packs

  • Dietary modifications

  • Weight loss

  • Exercise

  • Alcohol intake

  • Vitamin C

Specific circumstances

HLA-B*58:01 allele carriers: as per CPIC 2013 guidelines, do not use allopurinol in HLA-B58:01 allele carriers.
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  • Patients taking antihypertensive medications

  • Patients taking aspirin

  • Patients taking fenofibrate

Patient education

General counseling: as per EULAR 2024 guidelines, consider showing and explaining imaging findings of gout to patients to help them understand their condition and improve treatment adherence.
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Preventative measures

Routine immunizations: as per ACR 2023 guidelines, consider offering high-dose or adjuvanted influenza vaccination, rather than regular-dose influenza vaccination, in ≥ 65 years old patients with rheumatic or musculoskeletal diseases and in 18-65 years old patients with rheumatic or musculoskeletal diseases on immunosuppressive medications.
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  • Prophylaxis for P. jirovecii pneumonia

Follow-up and surveillance

Indications for specialist referral: as per ACR 2012 guidelines, refer patients for specialist consultation in the following situations:
unclear etiology of hyperuricemia
refractory signs or symptoms of gout
difficulty in reaching the target serum urate level, particularly with renal impairment and a trial of xanthine oxidase inhibitor treatment
multiple and/or serious adverse events from pharmacologic urate-lowering therapy.
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  • Serum urate monitoring

  • Imaging follow-up

  • Indications for switching urate-lowering agents

  • Management of refractory disease